Organizers still in the fight

Houston, TX, founded 1988

Air Alliance Houston, founded in 1988, monitors emissions from the Ship Channel industrial corridor, challenges individual plant permits before the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality, and built the epidemiological and administrative-law record that underpinned the 2021 Title VI complaint that paused TxDOT's North Houston Highway Improvement Project.

Cited in: Second Ward

Salt Lake City, UT

Alliance for a Better Utah pursues ratepayer and transparency advocacy at the Utah Public Service Commission on Rocky Mountain Power tariff cases, including proceedings on data-center cost assignment in Cedar Valley. The organization uses open-records requests and rate-case interventions to force disclosure of industrial water and power draws.

Cited in: Eagle Mountain Meta Campus

Phoenix, AZ

Arizona Residential Utility Consumer Office is the statutory ratepayer advocate before the Arizona Corporation Commission, filing in every ACC docket including data-center cost-of-service cases affecting the Phoenix West Valley. RUCO's interventions document the APS residential rate increases driven by data-center transmission infrastructure.

Cited in: Tract Buckeye and Microsoft Goodyear

Pittsburgh, PA, founded 1808

Bethel AME Church, Pittsburgh's oldest Black congregation, was demolished by the URA in 1957 after 149 years on the Lower Hill. The congregation rebuilt at Webster and Morgan avenues and in April 2023 reclaimed 1.5 acres of original Lower Hill land from the Pittsburgh Penguins, establishing the first reparative land-return precedent in the atlas.

Cited in: Lower Hill District

Hastings, NE, founded 2010

Bold Nebraska built the farmer, rancher, and tribal coalition that stopped the Keystone XL pipeline over twelve years of organizing. The group now tracks LB 1261 and the Omaha Public Power District rate hearings as Google, Meta, and Tenaska push data-center load onto Nebraska ratepayers.

Cited in: Papillion Cluster: Meta, Google, and LB 1261

Bronx, NY, founded 2001

The Bronx River Alliance has restored the Bronx River through three linked programs since 2001, reclaiming a waterway that industry, highway construction, and decades of municipal neglect had turned into a dumping ground. The Alliance now leads one of the most sustained environmental-justice recovery efforts in New York City.

Cited in: Cross Bronx Expressway

Oxnard, CA, founded 2001

CAUSE organizes low-income and immigrant communities across Ventura and Santa Barbara counties on housing, environmental justice, and civic engagement. The Ventura office anchors the Choice Neighborhoods fight in La Colonia and the farmworker advocacy that runs from Oxnard through the citrus belt.

Cited in: Ventura County

Phoenix, AZ

Chispa Arizona is a Latina-led clean-energy organizing group affiliated with the League of Conservation Voters; joined April 2025 rural-Arizona press actions on energy policy and participates in ACC proceedings on data-center cost assignment and climate equity in the Phoenix Active Management Area.

Cited in: Tract Buckeye and Microsoft Goodyear

Prince William County, VA, founded 2014

The Coalition to Protect Prince William County, founded in 2014 by Elena Schlossberg, built the local organizing infrastructure that carried the Prince William Digital Gateway fight to its March 2025 unanimous Virginia Court of Appeals ruling. The coalition runs on volunteer members, small donations, and a sustained policy presence at the county board.

Cited in: Prince William Digital Gateway, Pageland Lane

Hood River, OR, founded 2000

Columbia Riverkeeper co-counseled the Morrow County class action against Amazon and leads organizing on the Cascade Locks Roundhouse data-center proposal. The organization intervenes in Columbia Basin salmon litigation and tracks instream-flow implications of data-center water withdrawals on treaty fishing rights.

Cited in: Prineville and Boardman

Oakland, CA

ConnectOakland advocates for removal of I-980 to reconnect West Oakland to downtown and maintains historical documentation of I-980's displacement of 503 houses, 4 churches, and 22 businesses between 1968 and 1985. The organization aligns with the Caltrans Vision 980 Study process, whose Phase 2 launched in 2026.

Cited in: West Oakland and the Cypress Freeway

Detroit, MI, founded 2011

Detroit People's Platform, founded in 2011, advances resident power on Detroit's east side and along the riverfront. The organization has been the most sustained community voice in the Michigan Department of Transportation's I-375 removal planning process, pressing MDOT and the City of Detroit to commit to affordable housing, community land trusts, and first-right-of-return for descendants of the Black Bottom families displaced by the Gratiot Redevelopment Project.

Cited in: Black Bottom and Paradise Valley

National City, CA, founded 1980

Environmental Health Coalition campaigns on industrial zoning, truck-route restrictions, toxic-free neighborhoods, and climate-resilience projects in Barrio Logan and National City. Barrio Logan ranks in the top 5 percent of most polluted areas in California. EHC led advocacy for the 2021 community plan with a 65-acre industrial buffer zone and final Coastal Commission approval in 2023.

Cited in: Barrio Logan and Chicano Park

Houston, TX, founded 2017

The Freedmen's Town Conservancy documents surviving structures and brick streets in Houston's Fourth Ward, engages the City of Houston planning department on development proposals, and led the 2020 rapid-response campaign that recovered hand-laid freedpeople bricks disturbed during a city water main replacement project on Andrews Street.

Cited in: Freedmen's Town

San Diego, CA

Green the Gap / I-5 Lid Coalition campaigns for a park lid over I-5 through Barrio Logan to physically reconnect the neighborhood bisected by the freeway in 1963. Aligned with SANDAG's $3.3 million federal study launched in 2024, the coalition pursues the infrastructure-reversal logic that animated the 1970 Chicano Park occupation.

Cited in: Barrio Logan and Chicano Park

Omaha, NE, founded 2009

The Heartland Workers Center has organized Mexican and Central American workers in South Omaha meatpacking and warehousing since 2009. The Center carries the civic infrastructure that gives South Omaha ratepayers a voice in the Omaha Public Power District rate hearings that Meta and Google's hyperscale load has reopened.

Cited in: Papillion Cluster: Meta, Google, and LB 1261

Pittsburgh, PA, founded 1991

Hill District Consensus Group is a membership-based 501(c)(3) that organized the One Hill CBA Coalition in 2007-2008, continues renter-rights programming and development oversight, and characterized the 2025 expiration of the Penguins' development rights as a window to demand enforceable CBA terms from the URA.

Cited in: Lower Hill District

Memphis, TN, founded 2020

Memphis Community Against Pollution grew out of the 2020 Byhalia Connection pipeline fight in Boxtown. Led by KeShaun Pearson, the group has carried the same documentary-first organizing method into the permit challenges against xAI's Colossus supercomputer in South Memphis.

Cited in: xAI Colossus, Boxtown, xAI Colossus 2, Whitehaven

Columbus, OH, founded 1975

Ohio Citizen Action has organized ratepayers and neighborhood coalitions in Ohio since 1975. The group now runs a statewide petition drive for a ban on supersized data centers and anchors the village-and-township coalition confronting the Licking County hyperscaler cluster.

Cited in: Johnstown and the New Albany Hyperscaler Cluster

La Grande, OR, founded 2002

Oregon Rural Action organized door-to-door well-water testing in Morrow County that produced the evidentiary base for the class action against Amazon settled for 20.5 million dollars in March 2026. The organization operates a rural-chapter model and employs staff attorneys and community organizers.

Cited in: Prineville and Boardman

Warrenton, VA, founded 1972

The Piedmont Environmental Council has protected the rural land and open spaces of the nine-county Virginia Piedmont since 1972. The council's land-use staff, led by director Julie Bolthouse, has become the regional analytic center for the data-center fights stretching from Prince William and Loudoun south through Fauquier, Culpeper, and Spotsylvania.

Cited in: Prince William Digital Gateway, Pageland Lane

Chicago, IL

The Pilsen Alliance organizes against displacement in Chicago's Pilsen neighborhood, the Mexican-American community immediately southwest of the former Maxwell Street corridor. The Alliance monitors University of Illinois at Chicago campus expansion plans and cites the Maxwell Street record in its public communications on Near West Side displacement.

Cited in: Maxwell Street

Phoenix, AZ, founded 2015

Poder in Action is a working-class Latino civic advocacy organization active on utility-rate and climate-justice filings at the Arizona Corporation Commission, including proceedings on APS ratepayer cost assignment for data-center transmission infrastructure in the Phoenix West Valley.

Cited in: Tract Buckeye and Microsoft Goodyear

Austin, TX, founded 1984

Public Citizen Texas testifies at the Public Utility Commission of Texas on the Texas Energy Fund and data-center ratepayer risk, translating invisible subsidy structures into visible per-household cost figures. Director Adrian Shelley has testified specifically on the risk that Stargate-scale loads impose on ERCOT retail ratepayers.

Cited in: Stargate Abilene

Saint Paul, MN, founded 2015

ReConnect Rondo, incorporated in 2015, advances a 21-acre land bridge proposal over Interstate 94 through the Rondo corridor in Saint Paul, integrating a community land trust structure to direct development wealth toward families displaced by the freeway's construction between 1956 and 1968. The organization is engaged in MnDOT's Rethinking I-94 process.

Cited in: Rondo

Austin, TX, founded 1965

Sierra Club Lone Star Chapter files at the Public Utility Commission of Texas on SB 6 rulemaking, intervening in large-load infrastructure cost-assignment proceedings for data-center campuses including Stargate Abilene. The chapter connects ERCOT grid reliability, ratepayer cost exposure, and emissions permitting in Taylor County into a unified public-interest challenge.

Cited in: Stargate Abilene

Bronx, NY, founded 2012

South Bronx Unite organizes Mott Haven and Port Morris residents against warehouse expansion, truck corridor pollution, and luxury waterfront development along the same corridor the Cross Bronx Expressway first cut. The group pairs air-quality data collection with land-use fights and a community-controlled waterfront plan.

Cited in: Cross Bronx Expressway

Washington, DC, founded 1964

Southwest Neighborhood Assembly is the volunteer-driven civic nonprofit for near-Southwest Washington (zip code 20024). Its History Task Force pursues Historic District designation for Old Southwest and maintains an archive including the HABS DC-856 document. SWNA co-hosts community forums with Empower DC on preserving public housing in Southwest.

Cited in: Southwest Quadrant

Houston, TX

Stop TxDOT I-45 is a community coalition that has organized opposition to the North Houston Highway Improvement Project since TxDOT advanced the corridor plans through 2015 onward. The coalition helped produce the 2021 federal Title VI complaint that paused the project, the first time a major Texas highway had been halted on civil-rights grounds at the construction stage.

Cited in: Second Ward

Abilene, TX, founded 2025

Taylor County Action Network formed informally in 2025 to monitor the Stargate campus development north of Abilene. The network attends Taylor County Commissioners Court meetings, documents permit filings and tax-abatement terms, and tracks Hubbard Creek reservoir draw data. It represents the first organized civic voice for ratepayer and landowner interests in the Stargate corridor.

Cited in: Stargate Abilene

San Diego, CA, founded 1981

Pan-Mexicano political organization with a Logan Heights Comite Local Francisco Villa; organizes the Annual Grito de Independencia at Chicano Park; runs the Somos Raza Youth Project; operates the Comite de Derechos Humanos Digna Ochoa on community rights; and maintains the Chicano Mexicano Prison Project founded in Logan Heights in 1993.

Cited in: Barrio Logan and Chicano Park

Salt Lake City, UT, founded 1994

Utah Rivers Council launched the Great Salt Lake Waterkeeper and the 4,200 Project to connect Cedar Valley groundwater withdrawals by data-center campuses to Great Salt Lake elevation. The organization intervenes at the Utah Public Service Commission on Rocky Mountain Power tariff cases and documents industrial water draws that reduce Jordan River inflow.

Cited in: Eagle Mountain Meta Campus

Portland, OR, founded 1985

WaterWatch of Oregon intervenes and comments at the Oregon Water Resources Department on water-right transfers including Google's The Dalles right, and publishes technical documentation on how Oregon's data-center boom drives aquifer stress and Crooked River baseflow reductions.

Cited in: Prineville and Boardman

New York, NY, founded 2008

The West Harlem Development Corporation administers the $150 million community-benefits fund Columbia University committed to West Harlem under the 2009 agreement that followed the Manhattanville rezoning. The corporation's governance has drawn sustained criticism from Community Board 9 and the Columbia Daily Spectator.

Cited in: Manhattanville

Oakland, CA, founded 2004

West Oakland Environmental Indicators Project, co-founded in 2004 by Margaret Gordon and Brian Beveridge, uses hyperlocal air monitoring, AB 617 community action planning, and Truck Route Ordinance enforcement to reduce pollution in West Oakland. Cancer risk from air pollution fell 54 percent across West Oakland between 2017 and 2025 through WOEIP-driven policy.

Cited in: West Oakland and the Cypress Freeway

Boulder, CO, founded 1989

Western Resource Advocates is a multistate policy and legal organization covering Arizona, New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, and Colorado; published a 2025 data-center water and power impact report documenting Hassayampa sub-basin dynamics and other Western water stress points driven by hyperscale industrial growth.

Cited in: Tract Buckeye and Microsoft Goodyear, Eagle Mountain Meta Campus

Memphis, TN, founded 2016

Young, Gifted and Green began in 2016 as Black Millennials for Flint, founded by LaTricea Adams in response to the Flint water crisis, and rebranded in 2021 to carry the same method into the climate and environmental-justice fights. The Memphis chapter anchors the organization's work against xAI Colossus.

Cited in: xAI Colossus, Boxtown, xAI Colossus 2, Whitehaven

San Diego, CA, founded 1996

Barrio Logan College Institute prepares first-generation college students from third grade through high school in Barrio Logan; serves 200-plus students. Founded in 1996, BLCI operates inside the community displaced by I-5 and the Coronado Bridge and represents the educational infrastructure the neighborhood built for itself after the clearances.

Cited in: Barrio Logan and Chicano Park

Brooklyn, NY, founded 2010

The Brownsville Community Justice Center runs criminal-justice reform, youth development, and commercial-corridor revitalization along Belmont and Pitkin Avenues. It opened in 2010 as an operating program of the Center for Justice Innovation.

Cited in: Brownsville

Lincoln, NE, founded 1942

The Malone Community Center has anchored Black Lincoln since 1942 through racial covenants, redlining, the cancelled Northeast Radial freeway, and the Antelope Valley Project. It holds the neighborhood's archive and runs youth, family, and senior programs from 2032 U Street.

Cited in: Malone

Miami, FL, founded 1993

The Overtown Youth Center has operated in Miami's Overtown neighborhood since 1993, providing education, sports, and career development programs for young residents of a community that the I-95 and I-395 interchange construction displaced from 50,000 to under 10,000 between the 1950s and 1980. The Center is one of Overtown's primary remaining institutional anchors against climate gentrification.

Cited in: Overtown

Saint Paul, MN, founded 2018

The Rondo Center of Diverse Expressions (RCODE), founded by Marvin Anderson in 2018, carries forward the advocacy and commemoration work of Rondo Avenue Inc. and holds administrative responsibility for the adjacent Rondo Commemorative Plaza. RCODE works to celebrate Rondo's history, support cultural expression in the corridor, and build community toward the neighborhood's reconnection.

Cited in: Rondo

Houston, TX

West Street Recovery organized disaster relief in Houston's Second Ward, Fifth Ward, and surrounding East End neighborhoods after Hurricane Harvey in 2017 and brought the relational infrastructure of neighborhood-by-neighborhood organizing into the coalition fighting TxDOT's North Houston Highway Improvement Project.

Cited in: Second Ward

New York, NY, founded 1991

The Cooper Square Community Land Trust holds the ground under 23 buildings and more than 300 apartments on the Lower East Side, the institutional successor to the Cooper Square Alternate Plan the neighborhood won from the city after three decades of organizing.

Cited in: Cooper Square

Pittsburgh, PA

Hill Community Development Corporation leads the Hill Community Land Trust, New Granada Theater restoration, Lower Hill advocacy, and neighborhood reinvestment programming in Pittsburgh's Hill District. Hill CDC organized the One Hill CBA coalition alongside the Hill District Consensus Group and signed the first community benefits agreement in Pennsylvania on August 19, 2008.

Cited in: Lower Hill District

Saticoy, CA, founded 1981

Cabrillo Economic Development Corporation grew out of the Cabrillo Improvement Association, the farmworker cooperative that bought a thirty-two-acre labor camp from the Saticoy Lemon Association in 1976. CEDC has built more than two thousand affordable units across Ventura County since 1981.

Cited in: Ventura County

New Orleans, LA, founded 1998

Ashé Cultural Arts Center, founded in Central City in 1998 by Carol Bebelle and Douglas Redd, anchors the cultural infrastructure of Black New Orleans by connecting the Mardi Gras Indian and second-line traditions to a broader framework of cultural sovereignty and economic justice. Ashé treats the continued practice of those traditions as a form of claim on public space and public resources in neighborhoods the I-10 Claiborne Expressway damaged.

Cited in: Tremé and the Claiborne Expressway, Iberville

San Diego, CA, founded 1970

The Chicano Park Steering Committee has governed Chicano Park in San Diego's Barrio Logan neighborhood since community members seized the site in April 1970, preventing the California Highway Patrol from building a parking facility on land the community had been promised as a park. The park's pillars carry the largest collection of outdoor murals in the world.

Cited in: Chávez Ravine

New York, NY, founded 1969

El Museo del Barrio opened in a public-school classroom in East Harlem in 1969 to serve the Puerto Rican community the city's downtown museums had ignored. It holds one of the most significant collections of Puerto Rican, Caribbean, and Latin American art in the United States.

Cited in: East Harlem

San Antonio, TX, founded 1987

The Esperanza Peace and Justice Center, founded in 1987 by artist and activist Graciela Sánchez, preserves the oral history and material culture of the Mexican-American neighborhood that HemisFair '68 clearance removed from the land east of downtown San Antonio. The Center's archive holds testimony from former residents who named the streets, businesses, and demolition sequence of the cleared barrio.

Cited in: West Side and HemisFair '68

Los Angeles, CA, founded 1987

The Mural Conservancy of Los Angeles documents, preserves, and restores the Chicano mural tradition across Los Angeles, including the murals on Wilmington's commercial strips that carry the names and faces of the families the Harbor Freeway displaced.

Cited in: San Pedro

Detroit, MI

The Paradise Valley Cultural and Entertainment District Conservancy is a 501(c)(3) nonprofit formed to preserve the legacy of African-American arts and commerce on the Hastings Street and St. Antoine corridors that the Detroit Plan and the I-375 freeway erased between 1950 and 1968. The Conservancy works to make the Gratiot-Rivard corridor a destination for Black cultural programming and economic development.

Cited in: Black Bottom and Paradise Valley

Los Angeles, CA, founded 1971

The Terminal Islanders Club holds the record of Furusato, the Japanese-American fishing village of three thousand residents the Navy evacuated in forty-eight hours in February 1942 and the Army Corps later bulldozed. The club dedicated the Terminal Island Japanese Memorial at Fish Harbor in 2002.

Cited in: San Pedro

Washington, DC, founded 1987

The American Battlefield Trust has acquired, preserved, and litigated around Civil War, Revolutionary War, and War of 1812 battlefields since 1987. The Trust was the lead plaintiff with nine Gainesville residents in the January 2023 suit that produced the March 31, 2025 unanimous Virginia Court of Appeals ruling voiding the Prince William Digital Gateway rezoning.

Cited in: Prince William Digital Gateway, Pageland Lane

Pendleton, OR, founded 1855

The Confederated Tribes of the Umatilla Indian Reservation hold usual-and-accustomed fishing rights on the Columbia River and its tributaries under the 1855 Treaty of Walla Walla. The Natural Resources Department tracks Columbia Basin water quality and participates in proceedings where Morrow County data-center operations, including Amazon's Boardman campus cooling-tower effluent, affect tribal fishing rights and aquifer integrity.

Cited in: Prineville and Boardman

Warm Springs, OR, founded 1855

The Confederated Tribes of Warm Springs hold treaty rights established by the 1855 Treaty of Dayton to fish, hunt, and gather at usual and accustomed places in the Deschutes Basin. The Natural Resources Branch administers instream-flow monitoring and intervenes in water-right transfer proceedings that threaten Deschutes River baseflow and first-food salmon runs.

Cited in: Prineville and Boardman

Oakland, CA, founded 1988

East Bay Community Law Center provides free eviction defense, tenants' rights counseling, and housing policy advocacy for low-income Oakland residents. The Keep Oakland Housed program has served more than 4,000 residents. Legal clinics at UC Berkeley School of Law provide deep expertise in Alameda County landlord-tenant law.

Cited in: West Oakland and the Cypress Freeway

Columbus, OH, founded 1976

The Ohio Consumers' Counsel is the statutory ratepayer advocate for Ohio residential utility customers. In July 2025 the office prevailed at the Public Utilities Commission of Ohio in the AEP Ohio data-center tariff case, forcing hyperscalers to cover 85 percent of subscribed load for twelve years.

Cited in: Johnstown and the New Albany Hyperscaler Cluster

Logan, UT, founded 1976

Bridgerland Audubon Society is the Cache Valley chapter of the National Audubon Society, covering northern Utah and southeastern Idaho. The chapter documents bird habitat loss around the Great Salt Lake and in the Cedar Valley basin, providing the ornithological data that connects industrial water withdrawals on the Wasatch Front to measurable shorebird and migratory waterfowl decline at the lake.

Cited in: Eagle Mountain Meta Campus

Chicago, IL

The Bronzeville Historical Society, under the leadership of Dino Robinson, maintains the Explainer Project, a parcel-level database of Black Chicago history that ties primary-source documentation to specific addresses and blocks. The database gives researchers and present-day organizers a block-by-block account of what the Chicago Land Clearance Commission cleared from the Near South Side beginning in 1952.

Cited in: Bronzeville

New York, NY, founded 1973

Centro holds the largest archive of Puerto Rican history in the United States at Hunter College, documenting the diaspora, the urban-renewal displacements that scattered New York's Puerto Rican communities, and the organizing record that emerged in response.

Cited in: San Juan Hill, East Harlem

New Orleans, LA

The Claiborne Avenue History Project assembled the oral-history and photographic record of North Claiborne Avenue before and after the 1966 I-10 elevated expressway construction, working from archives at the Amistad Research Center at Tulane University and the Historic New Orleans Collection. The Project's documentation supplied the evidentiary base for the federal Reconnecting Communities planning grants awarded to the Claiborne corridor in 2022 and 2023.

Cited in: Tremé and the Claiborne Expressway

Chicago, IL

The DuSable Heritage Association advocates for recognition and preservation of Black Chicago history, with a focus on the Bronzeville corridor cleared by the Chicago Land Clearance Commission beginning in 1952. The Association supplied the community research and advocacy documentation that underpinned the Black Metropolis National Heritage Area campaign, authorized by Congress in 2022.

Cited in: Bronzeville

Chicago, IL, founded 1993

The Maxwell Street Foundation documents and interprets the history of the Maxwell Street market and the Near West Side communities that the University of Illinois at Chicago's Circle Campus and South Campus expansions displaced between 1961 and 2001. The Foundation's archive holds photographs, oral histories, and the preservation coalition papers from the Section 106 settlement.

Cited in: Maxwell Street

Granville, OH, founded 2018

The Reporting Project at Denison University is the investigative journalism program that has carried the Licking County water, aquifer, and zoning record through the Intel and Meta build-out. The project's reporting on covert aquifer drilling near the Granville Superfund plume is the primary public documentation of the hyperscalers' groundwater search.

Cited in: Johnstown and the New Albany Hyperscaler Cluster

Houston, TX, founded 1996

The Rutherford B. H. Yates Museum, founded in 1996 and operating from restored historic homes at 900 Victor Street in Freedmen's Town, holds photographs, oral histories, correspondence, church records, business documents, and household artifacts from the Fourth Ward's founding generation through the mid-twentieth century. The Museum is the deepest repository of material evidence for daily life in Freedmen's Town before the clearances reduced the ward.

Cited in: Freedmen's Town

Washington, DC, founded 1967

The Smithsonian Anacostia Community Museum produced the 'A Right to the City' exhibition (2018-2020) with nearly 200 oral histories from six DC neighborhoods including Southwest, and co-produced the 'Before the Bulldozers' augmented-reality walking tour. It holds the exhibition archival records at ACMA.03-119.

Cited in: Southwest Quadrant

New York, NY, founded 1959

The Cooper Square Committee has organized tenants on the Lower East Side since 1959, winning the Cooper Square Alternate Plan that stopped Robert Moses from clearing twelve blocks and converting them into luxury housing. The Committee still runs the neighborhood's tenant defense and anti-displacement work.

Cited in: Cooper Square

Washington, DC

Empower DC is a citywide, multi-issue, membership-based community organizing group working alongside public housing residents at Greenleaf Gardens, James Creek, Park Morton, and Barry Farm. It co-hosts forums with SWNA on preserving public housing in Southwest DC and documents the third displacement on the same ground the RLA clearance first struck in the 1950s.

Cited in: Southwest Quadrant